Acknowledgement
This work is an attempt to study the female terracotta figurines of Bihar, especially of the Mauryan period (C.4th -2nd C. B.C.) and to asses its role in the socio-religious aspect of people’s life. I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. (Dr.) Anupa Pande Head of Department and my guide, without whose guidance, this work couldn’t have seen the light of the day. I would also like to thank the library staff of National Museum and Patna Museum, who often went out of way to help me in the accomplishment of my work. Thanks also due to my friends who regularly went through the manuscript and add value to it through constant suggestion and inputs.
Nishant
03.02.07
Introduction
The accession of Chandragupta Maurya to the throne of Magdha in 321 B.C
[1]. Marks the beginning of the Mauryan dynasty under whose rule the Magadhan empire reached the apex of glory. Sources available for understanding the history of Mauryan period may be divided into two groups, literary and archaeological. By the time of Mauryan rule was established in Magadh, Sanskrit had emerged as a rich Indian language. The Arthashastra of Vishnugupta throws important light on the contemporary social and political conditions. The Greek account Indica written by Megasthenes is also a credible source, though available only in fragments. It shows correspondence with the Kautilyan text at many places
[2]. Archaeological excavations have provided invaluable information about Mauryan period. The entire life history of Ashoka has been constructed on the basis of inscriptions, rock and pillar edicts, stupas and cave excavations.
Buddhist caves, Ashokan pillars and stone sculptures are resplendent examples and staple of the Mauryan art, but terracottas which were widely used as household utensils since time immemorial classified as vernacular medium of art, carved a niche with its splendid and realistic appearance in this period.
In addition to the stone carvers, the potters of Mauryas fashioned clay to satisfy the needs of the society ranging from king to the lower ordinary people. Especially in the urban areas such as Bulandibagh and Kumarhar they fashioned extraordinary pieces and gained a special position parallel to other mediums of art. Among the terracotta centres flourished during the Mauryan reign, Buxar now a small town 120 km. away form Patna was one of the more important ones. Unlike Bulandibagh, Buxar produced numerous examples that represent fashionable ladies with elaborate headgear and typical ornaments composed with floral and foliage patterns. From this period we can notice few differences between the works of ordinary potters and the potter artists. The skilled potters were known as Rajakumbhkaras
[3], commissioned by royal classes whether the ordinary potters served for the folk peoples. Both the potters are still working in our society.
Pataliputra,presently known as Patna and surrounding areas have yielded exquisite examples of this period. The large size female figurines wearing heavy jewellry, head dress, long skirt and distinguished by sensitive modelling are no doubt the work of skilled masters. Buxar, which was not the capital city in the Mauryan times, has yielded terracotta figurines completely distinct in nature and recall Pre-Mauryan mother goddesses. Most of them are completely hand made but few show the moulded face. Lack of drapery, heavy jewelry and typical Mauryan coiffure are clear indications of its belonging to the rural area. Bulandibagh and Patna city terracottas with their urban look were new arrivals in the domain of Indian art. Although Buxar and Mathura like rural areas produced terracottas with crudely modelled faces and physiognomy.
Terracotta centers are prolific in Bihar. According to chronology and for convenient study some important archeological sites have been selected here. The present paper is an attempt to focus the terracotta art activity of Bihar in the Muryan period (C. 4th -2nd B.C). The period has yielded diverse qualities of terracottas having several themes, taking queue from which, Sunga, Kushana, Gupta and Pala periods have been able to produce extraordinary examples of this art. It is really difficult to discuss the entire Mauryan terracottas in one seminar paper. For this reason in this seminar female figurines are selected as a theme, which are most common among the Mauryan terracottas.
General Characteristics
Mauryan sites have yielded two kinds of female figurines, the first one is completely nude or half nude, crude in appearance with broad hips and prominent breasts and the other one is clad with heavy sparse jewellry, thick drapery, head dress and sophisticated moulded face. Stella Kramrisch has divided early terracotta figurines in two categories, namely timeless and timed bound
[4]. Figurines of both this categories have been found in abundance from Mauryan sites. While time bound types are found in urban centers and timeless type in rural areas, presence of timeless types in urban center reveals that some sacred rites were observed and urban people indulged with clay, also. The timeless figurines are made entirely by hand. Most prominent features of this type of figurines are the broad hips in contrast to the comparatively narrow waist, the arms and legs, which end in stumps without any indication of hands and feet
[5]. The arms are outstretched and the face is detailed by pinched nose and eyes are indicated by circlets or deep incisions and the navel is indicated by a punched circlet. In this group, most of them are female figurine in nude but few have appliqué drapery and ornaments, girdle and neck collar. In some figurines a punch mark has been found on the abdomen and waist like the goddess from the chalcolithic site of Kulli
[6].
In the second group, a new class of terracotta figurines appeared in the Mauryan period because they had moulded faces. In this group, figurines are treated artistically showing sensitive modelling. Although the face is pressed out from mould but the ears, the hair and the headdress, are added separately. The female figurines are quite large in size wearing heavy jewellary i.e earrings, girdles and two or three (trilari) strand necklaces. Different types of headdresses and draperies are also visible. Anatomically, hips are pronounced, waists are narrow and the breasts are delicately modelled in full bloom resembling the Didarganj Yakshi. The appliqué technique seems to be common to both the ageless and the ‘time bound’ terracottas. But the additive technique is employed mostly in the time bound
[7]. The technique of partly mould made and partly hand modelled figurines were practiced at all Mauryan sites not confined only to the urban centres like Chandraketugarh and Bulandibagh. Buxar, a rural centre has also yielded figurines with moulded face. This technique seems to have been popular with the modellers of all ages.
On the basis of stylization, it is difficult to say which one is the earliest example. The chronology of Indian terracottts has given rise to much speculation and several conclusions have been drawn from the existence of various types. Primitive type (timeless) has been drawn assigned an early example and sometimes a pre-historic date. The primitive type (esp. hand modelled, pinched nose, stumpy legs), however is as frequent at Mohenjodaro in the third millennium BC. as they are in the Ganges valley, from pre-historic times to the Gupta period and their number is not less today, made as they are by potters and in the villages of Bengal, Bihar and other parts of India. The purpose and meaning of these female figurines have never been satisfactorily explained. In one hand they are secular, visualizing the social life and in the other hand they are not general ladies but Yakshi or cult deity because of their elaborate headdress or exposed sex organs.
Bulandibagh figurines are often identified as dancers on the basis of their postures and costume. These are depicted with full of energy and motions with one arm raised and the other bent at the waist or in some cases playing a musical instrument. Their attire and body gesture compel us to believe that their presence in the Mauryan terracottas is to show the cultural milieu but not the religious affinity. Since the early times dance and music have been an important part of the social life in Bihar and this is proved by the discovery of numerous artifacts and early texts, which speak volume to this
[8]. Even before the age of Mauryas, royal courts employed court dancers and promoted the performing arts in large extent. Amrapali the famous court dancer of Ajatashatru owned a special position in the society certifies the popularity of the performing arts and their aristocratic promotion. The Jatakas also mention the dance festival, dancers, jugglers and drummers.
The present paper encompasses all types of female figurines excavated from Buxar and Patna, the important Mauryan sites in Bihar.
Completely Hand Modelled Figurines
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The female figurine(Fig.1) excavated from Buxar which is completely hand modelled and treated with dark slip that on the well known N.B.P. ware. She stands on stumpy legs with outstretched arms of which left is completely broken. The nose is pinched partly in bird like shape and the eyes are indicated by deep incised lines. The breasts are looking heavy, perfectly conical in shape and the nipples are marked by deep holes. The artiste does not portray her iconoplastically, display the abstracted and simplified body forms recognizable as humans more because of the upright posture. Though it shows the compact modelling, slim waist and wide flaring hips, this is further accentuated by the fact that her Kanchi or single stringed girdle comes low on the hips, emphasizing her heavy hip line. Her navel is an applied pallet. However, its depiction is little unusual and placed much lower than it has to be. The figurine is completely unadorned except the girdle bearing a vertical cult marks. However there are three painted lines on her neck depicting Trilari and such lines are painted on the arm seems armlet. The iconography derives that the beaked shaped female figurine seems to be Garuramata Suparna the Mother of the great eagle
[9]. This type of female figurine is also found from Mathura. Though, similar type of figurine is still worshipped in the remote areas of Bihar and Bengal as her aspects of fecundity.
[10]☼
The next example (fig.2) is also from Buxar and is completely hand modelled. Her flat face depicts the snouted mouth like those of animals. Her nose is pinched and the eyes are indicated by pallets, applied separately. She stands on stumpy legs with outstretched arms in which the left one is broken. Her breasts are not prominent like the pervious one but her hips are broad tapering downward. On the upper part of the head, deep incised lines indicate hair. The fingers and toes are also indicated by the same pattern. The figurine is finely baked treated with red slip and is decorated with horizontal bands all over the body. Two holes are visible in the top of her head creates some doubt about its use. Similar types of figurines and amulets with perforation on the top have been used for fashion or talisman as pendent. But the present example is quit large in size than the actual shape of a pendent. It seems that the object was used for decoration or in front a worshiper for meditation.
Similar type of female figurines with two flattened legs and supported by some projection on the back side are found from both the Mauryan sites Mathura and Buxar. These types of female figurine, having a antenna like projection or support force us to believe that they were kept in the position for ‘darshana’ in front of the worshipper, in the house or outer space. The available material confirms that in the Mauryan period, the cult of Mother Worship had become very popular and the moddlers introduced several iconographic features never witnessed earlier.
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The next example (fig.3) from Buxar is carved in rudimentary manner, shows a woman holding a child in her left arm. She is completely hand modelled and the child in her left arm is modelled and affixed separately. The ears are high and flap out wards like those of animals and do not so credible anatomical rendering. She is shown wearing earrings stamped with chakra motifs. The nose is flat and pinched and mouth is marked by deep incised line. In fact the facial features are flat, yet special emphasis has given to the large diamond shaped eyes lined with collyrium. The lower half of the body is again peculiar and looks as if carved from a tree trunk, a cylindrical waist, two tubular legs and a projection behind for sitting. The lower half also appears like a tripod.
Mother and child became popular theme in the early Indian terracottas. On a seal discoverd at Nalanda depicts a seated goddess with a child and having a tree in her right.
[11] These types of female figurines frequently represented in during the Kushana period particularly in Gandhara
[12], as a fertility figure accompanied by one or more children. In the Gupta period she has been added in the groups of Sapta Matriksas, holding a child in her arm.
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Partly Mould Made Figurine
In this Example (fig.4) we can see the refined modelling in comparison with previous examples. Here the artiste has adopted a new technique of modelling and mingled it with the previous one i.e. hand modelling. The technical assimilation enabled him to create some of the most attractive figurines. The mixed technique has been resulted into iconographical as well as the anatomical perfection and persuaded in the later periods in more refined forms. The result of new technique is quite apparent in this figurine. We can notice the size of her face, which seems smaller in proportion as related to the other parts of the body but her small and flat facial feature depicts soft expression with small nose and half opened eyes never witnessed earlier. Her neck is thick and cylindrical; however the heavy and pendulous breasts are well modelled. A large floral pendent dominates her neck. The unique feature in this figurine is the covering of the head, which is embroidered and frilled. The conical shaped head covering, reaching to the eyes is ornamented with rosette patterns in horizontal registers. The figurine is completely nude whereas the privy parts are not indicated, she is wearing floral earrings seems to be Ashoka flowers pinned with cluster of Ashoka leaves. We can see similar type of leaves rolled on two dangling pads which are shown coming out from both the sides of the head covering,.
It is said that when a beautiful women kicks a Ashoka tree, then the whole tree bloosms into beautiful red flowers. Her facial expression with half opened eyes and the head covering seem to be an attitude of prayer. She also seems to be taking part in a rite or ritual may be the vegetation rite. According to pannani salabhanjika or tree goddess festival was prevalent in that time among women in which women decorate themselves with Ashoka flowers and leaves to participate in the ritual.
[13] The cluster of Ashoka leaves and flowers in this figurine seems to be a type of ritual. Is it she Ashoka Bhanjika or Dohada.
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The next example (fig-5) is also from Buxar has moulded face. It is noticeable that every moulded Buxar figurines depict somehow similar facial feature. A striking feature of the moulded female figurine is their enormous headgear, decorated with floral motifs and jewels. The female figurines from Buxar are cryptic in character, but aesthetically very interesting and quite different from the contemporary Bulandibagh figurines.
We can see a typical antenna like projection at the back, which supports her. The most distinctive feature in this figurine is her elaborate headgear, which is applied and consists of two lateral projections. The one on the left is rolled downward bears deep incised lines with impressed leaf pattern touching her forehead. While the other on the right is net (Jali) like pattern, probably the hair knotted with cloth straps; on the upper part of the forehead we can see a composition of beaded pattern, which seem to be the headband. Some additional leaves are also visible pinned in the right side of the headgear. Her neck is short affixed with a torque; however her heavy and pendulous breasts are well modeled. Her hands are outstretched like the previous examples and the legs are tubular. The fingers and toes are marked by deep incised lines. Her slender waist is further accentuated by tapering hips, emphasinging slim flank. Her nudity is well modeled and sensuous, even without a griddle on the waist, but the sex organ is not clearly indicated.
Another figurine from the same group which is some how modeled in similar fashion, except the floral pattern on the head gear and a necklace stamped with a large floral pendent dominating her heavy breasts. Similar type of pattern is impressed on the headgear. There is slight difference in the headgear. The right part of her headgear is decorated with beaded pattern but the entire arrangement is same like the pervious one. Leaves and floral pattern attached to the headgear suggest that these Buxar figurines have been made for same purpose. Such figurines have variously been identified as Apsaras or Yakshis but without any evidences. If they represent divine figures and were used as a cult object is a matter of speculation. No concrete evidence is available to support this. Several female heads are also unearthed from Buxar bearing similar patterns on the headgear or jewellery. Even their facial features are similar to one another indicates that their faces are made of single mould. Probably these are the works of same atelier.
These female figurines from Buxar are characterized by elaborate headgears but which, however, are different from other Mauryan figurines even the figurines of Patna which is situated in the same region.
The next groups of figurines are from Patna and Bulandibagh.
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The present example (fig.6) shows a deep affinity with much celebrated stone sculpture of Didarganj Yakshi. The female figurine is undoubtedly a great work of art. Unfortunately her head is missing which may have been produced out of a mould. Her body is completely hand modelled and exquisitely ornamented like stone sculptures. Her breasts are heavy and globular; however the waist is much slender. She is wearing a heavy necklace that is missing on the left side. She wears two girdles, one is around the waist and the other is on the hips supporting the lower garment. The girdle on the waist is decorated with beaded pattern and knotted from which long silk strings ending in beaded tassels pass over the lower girdle. Multi pleated cloth which is tucked to the girdle covers her left thigh. However, the girdle on the hips is composed of floral motifs, fluted and plain beads. Her lower garment is plain on either side but folds are visible in the centre. The dress is very complicated. The cloth covering her left thigh does not create any sense. It is difficult to notice that her dress is either, dhoti or sari because the lower part of the figurine is broken.
[14]☼
The graceful female figurine (fig7) excavated from Bulandibagh is one of the finest example of the Mauryan terracotta art. Her dainty face is pressed out of mould with slightly smiling and parted lips and a soft look. The soft look belie the latent energy that the figure seems to be imbued with. The high sloping forehead is covered by a heavy and conspicuous headgear, which is applied separately. The stylized arrangement of the headgear has two lateral cones affixed to which is ribbon like object or cloth stripe hanging on each side. There is one large circular disc and one smaller on each side on the top of the cones. Between the plaques there is bundle of funnel shaped objects on each side.
Three interpretations can be drawn from her curious headgear.
· The curious and elaborate arrangement of her headgear seems to be originally a composition of flower and leaves. It appears like she is wearing an entire garden on her head. It also seems that the artiste wanted to paint flora and fauna on the plain surface of the headgear but nothing substantiate this.
· Another argument is that the circular disc might be a mirror and similar discs are also affixed on the waist. Later it became fashionable to depict women wearing mirrors on her clothe and headgears. The mirror or darpana is already known from the oldest lists of the astamangalas or eight auspicious symbols.
[15]· For the third interpretation, there is yet another example from Bulandibagh (fig.8). The basic similarities between them may be traced in the headgear. There is central circular discs, two lateral cones and two circular discs flanking the large one in both the figurines. The headgear seems exactly like this except the incision marks.
The arrangement of her headgear seems that she has parted hair in trifoiled manner or Trikhandi. In classical shilpshastra, Trikhandi is documented as a type of hair design in which hair is parted and composed in three (Juda). The enormous arrangement of the headgear with circular discs that is reminiscent of similar stylistic conventions seen in Indus valley figurine.
Now coming to the other elements of the figurine, it is interesting to note that there are two different sorts of earrings worn by the figurine. The right ear carries a latoonuma earplug while the left a round plaque to the side of the long neck. She is wearing a double stranded necklace in her neck and a thick bangle on the right hand, which is affixed separately. Cone shaped latoo numa earrings are found in the Sunga and Kushana period up to the 7th C. AD. Even these types of earrings are also found in Ajanta. Bana Bhatta has also mentioned, wearing two types of earrings became a fashion among the women.
Both the figurines are wearing the upper garment. The first one is wearing a full blouse completely covering her waist and tucked by a high belt above the waist. The full blouse probably resembles the Kurpashaka.
The other figurines upper part is covered with a Duppatta like cloth put on shoulder that stride in such a way that it covers her breasts. The cloth is fastened tightly with a belt at the waist. Her dress is typical and there is no any such reference in the early texts about its type..
The next important part of the costume is the skirt, which is divided in two parts and bulges below the hips. The scintillating movement of the figure is clearly indicated by the flaring and flouncy skrirt. But it is parted in the centre is curious. The flouncy skirt looks unstitched cloth on the waist, which is tucked in the waistband, and wraps all around. Several figurines wearing such skirts have been excavated from Bulandibagh. In all the figurines we can see a cloth hanging below the waistband to the upper part. It seems like a petticoat or undergarment. Though several interpretations have been derived about such garments of the figurines, the explanation that these are petticoat seems most appropriate.
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Another example from Bulandibagh (fig.9) supports the proposition that the cloth is undergarment, coming back to earlier figurines the parted feet and flouncy skirt show that the model is in a dancing pose. The skirt has been designed in such a way to facilitate easy movement of both the legs. While, the undergarment has been used to cover the privy part as when the dancer dances her parted skirt flies up.
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A female figurine of the same group (fig.10) is holding a damaru, which is a usual accompaniment in a street dance. She is in standing posture, characterized by a great charm and movement. The right arm is raised to the side holding a drum shaped object and the left arm is lowered to the other side and with an object in the hand, raised in front of the chest. She wears a thick bangle on each hand. Her neck collar and girdle are composed of beaded strings. The skirt clings closely to the legs and its end is gathered in folds at the back and flutters wide on the right side with folds of great depth and wavy outline. The ornaments of the ears are missing. The hair appears parted in the middle and leaves the over high forehead uncovered in a trapezoidal shape. The moulded face displays the open eyes, short nose and thin lips, on the basis of anatomical details few scholars consider her un-Indian. They argue that her skirt, sparse jewellery and slender body show foreign influence or a handwork of Greek artist who attempt to portray an Indian women in the full bloom of her youth.
But if we compare these examples with a Greek one, then we find lots of differences among them. The Greek sculptures show a great emphasis on the anatomy, even the legs are executed in a very naturalistic manner. So, on the basis of anatomical details, dresses and jewellery, it is difficult to conclude that these figurines show a close affinity with the foreigners. The stone sculpture of Didarganj Yakshi is found adorned with similar jewellery and dresses the high anatomical standard of these sculpture and its influence on the contemporary terracotta figurines shed lights upon indigenous character. According to S.P. Gupta, “these dancing figurines are not at all different from the other smaller figures, we take them as indigenous”
[16].
Few Tamaluk (Bengal) figurines are stylistically akin to those of the other Mauryan sites of Bihar. The terracotta figurines found from Bengal have close affinity with Bulandibagh figurines. There ornaments have similar patterns to neck ornaments adorn by Didarganj Yakshi.
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A terracotta female figurine (fig.11) from Tamaluk is shown in standing posture. Her face is mould made but the rest part of the body is hand made. The cherubic innocence reflecting by her moulded face recalls Bulandibagh figurines. She is adorned with elaborate headgear composed with rounded discs similar to the Bulandibagh examples. The hair is parted in the middle and hanging on either side of the face. In the left side below the disc is an affixed pad with funnel shaped objects. Her left hand is in akimbo while the right is stretched holding the hopped skirt. Her upper and lower garments are both in appliqué. The lower garment is like a skirt tied in the waist with a band. Her neck ornament is heavy, bears cut marks. Her hands, one is on the waist and another is holding the lower garment, are quite suggestive that she appears to be ready for some dance performance.
[17]Bengal and Bihar were both important regions of Mauryan Empire. Mauryan kings used Tamramlipta, a port city of ancient Bengal for the trades with the foreign lands. Mahasthana inscription in Mauryan Brahmi, N.B.P. shreds at Bangarh, in Dinajpur district and terracotta figurines dug out from the sites of Chandraketugarh are akin to Bulandibagh figurines. According to Devangana Desai, “Magdhan terracottas were popular in other regions of Bihar and also possibly that they were traded. Chandraketugarh and Tamluk in Bengal have yielded some native specimens of this period. But they also show the influence of the Magdhan style”.
Sometimes we tend to speak of them (female figurines) as timeless and time bound. But these are the simplistic way to classify them. Early Indian terracotta without having any inscriptions creates some doubt to decipher their actual time period. The period to which these terracottas belonged is determined on the basis of Archaeological and stylistic features.
[1] For the chronology – Thapar, Romila, Early India from the origins to AD 1300, Penguin Books, 2003, New Delhi and Jha, D.N, Ancient India, Monohar, 2002, New Delhi.
[2] Jha D.N, Ancient India, page 99
[3] Desai, Devangana,Terracotta and Urban culture of Ancient India(c.600B.C.-A.D.700)P.60,National Museum Bulletin,New Delhi
[4] Kramrisch, Stella, JIOS vol -7,Indian Terracottas,P.93,Calcutta,!939
[5] Bautze, J.K, Early Indian Terracottas, page 12, E.J Brill, Leiden, 1985.
[6] Agrawal, V.S, Mathura Terracottas, Prithvi Prakashan, 1980, Varanasi (in this work he writes about the punch mark on the abdomen of several terracotts figurines. He tries to compare this mark with Kulli Mother goddess some Buxar examples have also these common signs.
[7] Anand, Mulk Raj, Beauties Born in the mud of the Potter’s Yard, Marg, p.4, Marg Publication,Bombay..1969
[8] Jatakas, Vol-7,ed. E.b. Cowell, pp.46-49,Cambridge university press,1907
[9] Satapatha Brahamana 3.6.2.2.
[10] Dhavalikar, MadhukaSymbols and Manifestations of Indian Art, ed.Saryu Doshi, p44, Marg,1983,Patna Museum Catalogue.
[11]A.s.I,Memoir no.66,P42
[12] Ingholt,H and I. Lyons,Gandhara art in Pakistan,P145,Pantheon Books, New York,!957
[13] Agrawala, V.S. India as known to Panani,p229,Lucknow,1953
[14] Dhavalikar,M.k.,Masterpieces of Indian Terracotta Art,p51,Tarporvala,BomBay,1969
[15] Bautze,j.K.,Early Indian Terracottas,p18, E.J. Brill,Leiden,1995
[16] Gupta,S.P.,Roots of Indian art,p179,New Delhi,1981
[17] Biswas,S.S.,Terracotta art of Bengal,p104,Agam Kala Prakashan,New Delhi,1981
